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Plain-language summaries of published research. Every finding names its evidence stage (cell, animal or human trial) and links to its source.
A single peptide that activates three hormone receptors: GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon. It was developed by Eli Lilly and is given in trials as a once-weekly injection under the skin.
Blood sugar and body weight in adults with type 2 diabetes
Human trial, phase 2. Published and peer reviewed.
281 adults received retatrutide, placebo or an approved comparison drug for 36 weeks. In the highest-dose groups, HbA1c fell by up to 2.16 percentage points and body weight by up to about 17%.
Human trial, phase 2 substudy. Published and peer reviewed.
98 participants with obesity and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (at least 10% liver fat) were followed for 48 weeks. In the highest-dose group, liver fat fell by an average of 82% at 24 weeks and 86% at 48 weeks.
Also known as Body Protection Compound, PL 14736, PLD-116, PCO-02, bepecin
What it is
A synthetic chain of 15 amino acids based on part of a protein described in human gastric juice. It was first reported in 1993 by Sikiric and colleagues at the University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Of 36 studies that met the review's criteria, 35 were animal or cell studies and 1 was a human study. Another review notes that many of the animal studies come from the same research group and that benefits have not been confirmed in people.
Human study, 16 patients, no control group. Published and peer reviewed.
At one clinic, 14 of 16 patients reported less knee pain in a phone survey. Without a comparison group or objective measures, the study cannot show the peptide caused the change.
Human study, 12 women, no control group. Published and peer reviewed.
In women whose bladder pain condition had not responded to standard treatment, 10 of 12 reported complete symptom resolution after a single treatment. With no comparison group, the result is preliminary.
Human trial, phase 1, healthy volunteers. Registered; no results posted.
A phase 1 safety trial of an oral tablet (PCO-02) was registered in 2015 with 42 planned participants. Its status is listed as unknown, and no results have been posted or published.
Human safety data are minimal. The small human reports noted no adverse events, but none was designed to detect harms. The FDA notes possible risk of immune reactions and impurities, and limited safety information.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee voted 8 to 6 (1 abstention) to recommend adding it to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with; the FDA's own briefing recommended against. On October 28, 2026, HHS announced an interim policy under which it does not intend to take enforcement action against licensed pharmacies and physicians compounding BPC-157 for individual prescriptions under set conditions while rulemaking continues. HHS states this is not FDA approval. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
A lab-made version of the first 29 amino acids of growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), with four amino-acid changes and an added "drug affinity complex" (DAC) that binds to albumin in the blood. The albumin binding makes it last days instead of minutes. It was developed by ConjuChem Biotechnologies in Montreal.
"CJC-1295 without DAC," also sold as Modified GRF 1-29, lacks the albumin-binding group, so it is a chemically different compound. A review table lists its half-life as under 30 minutes, compared with about 6 to 8 days for the DAC version. The human trials on this page used the DAC version. We found no published human trials of the version without DAC. See the CJC-1295 without DAC page.
Human study, early-stage, two placebo-controlled trials in healthy adults aged 21 to 61. Published and peer reviewed.
A single dose raised growth hormone 2- to 10-fold for 6 days or more and IGF-1 1.5- to 3-fold for 9 to 11 days. The estimated half-life was 5.8 to 8.1 days. With repeated doses, IGF-1 stayed above baseline for up to 28 days.
Human study, small single-dose study in healthy men aged 20 to 40. Published and peer reviewed.
One week after a single dose, growth hormone pulses kept their normal frequency and size, while baseline growth hormone rose about 7.5-fold and IGF-1 about 45%.
Human trial, phase 2, 192 enrolled. Company announcements; no results were published.
In 2006, ConjuChem halted a phase 2 trial in people with HIV-related abdominal fat after a participant had a heart attack and died about 2 hours after the 11th weekly dose. The published reports do not say whether the drug caused the death. Development for clinical use stopped that year.
The 2006 healthy-adult trials reported no serious adverse reactions. Separately, the FDA states it has identified serious adverse events associated with CJC-1295, including increased heart rate, and that available clinical data are limited.
Delta sleep-inducing peptide; official name emideltide
What it is
A nine-amino-acid peptide isolated in 1977 by Schoenenberger and Monnier in Basel from the blood of rabbits put into sleep by electrical brain stimulation. Its gene, precursor protein and receptor have never been identified.
Animal study (rabbits). Published and peer reviewed.
Given into the brain under double-blind conditions, synthetic DSIP raised delta brain-wave activity, a marker of deep sleep, by about 35% compared with controls.
Human study, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 14 adults. Published and peer reviewed.
Middle-aged adults with chronic insomnia received DSIP for 7 nights. The author reported better night sleep from the first dose, plus better daytime alertness. This study came from the same research group that discovered DSIP.
Human study, double-blind, 16 adults. Published and peer reviewed.
Sleep-lab recordings showed slightly better sleep efficiency and faster sleep onset than placebo, but the authors called the effects weak, and patients did not feel they slept better. They concluded short-term DSIP "is not likely to be of major therapeutic benefit."
The review calls the link between DSIP and sleep poorly documented and notes that in the reviewers' own animal studies, some lab-made variants promoted deep sleep but DSIP itself did not.
Human safety data are minimal. Early studies described DSIP as generally well tolerated but did not report adverse events in detail. The FDA says it has not identified safety information for the proposed route of use.
No FDA-approved product. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee voted 7 to 6 (1 abstention) against adding emideltide to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with.
Also known as copper peptide, prezatide copper, copper tripeptide-1 (cosmetic ingredient name)
What it is
GHK is a three-amino-acid peptide (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine) found naturally in human blood; GHK-Cu is GHK bound to copper. Loren Pickart first reported it in 1973, and in 1980 his group showed it binds copper and increases copper uptake into cells.
Skin studies and other studies are different evidence
The human studies of GHK-Cu tested creams and gels applied to the skin. The wound and tissue findings come from cell and animal studies. Results from one should not be read as applying to the other.
What it has been studied for
Applied to the skin, in people
Diabetic foot ulcers
Human trial, randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter. Published and peer reviewed.
Alongside standard wound care, a GHK-Cu gel was compared with a plain gel. Median ulcer closure was 98.5% with the GHK-Cu gel and 60.8% with the plain gel, and infections occurred in 7% versus 34% of patients.
Human trial, randomized, 13 patients completed. Published and peer reviewed.
After laser treatment around the mouth, skin-care regimens with and without GHK-Cu showed no significant difference in redness, wrinkles or skin quality on examination. Patients using GHK-Cu rated their overall skin quality somewhat better.
In wound chambers placed under the skin of rats, GHK-Cu increased collagen and related tissue components in proportion to concentration, while a control peptide had no significant effect.
Animal study (rats), 24 animals. Published and peer reviewed.
By day 13, wound area had shrunk 64.5% with topical GHK-Cu, 45.6% with the base gel alone and 28.2% with no treatment. Treated wounds also had lower levels of inflammatory and tissue-breakdown markers.
An expert panel that reviews cosmetic ingredients concluded copper tripeptide-1 is safe in cosmetics at current use levels. Human safety data for any use other than on the skin are minimal; the FDA notes a possible risk of immune reactions and limited human data.
No FDA-approved drug. Used as a cosmetic ingredient. In April 2026, its nominations for drug compounding were withdrawn and it was removed from the FDA's Category 2 list; the FDA's compounding advisory committee is scheduled to consider it again. It is not among the peptides in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy.
A five-amino-acid peptide that acts on the ghrelin (growth hormone secretagogue) receptor to trigger growth hormone release. It was described in 1998 as the first such compound selective for growth hormone.
Cell study (rat pituitary cells) and animal study (rats, pigs). Published and peer reviewed.
Ipamorelin released growth hormone with potency similar to GHRP-6. In pigs, unlike GHRP-6 and GHRP-2, it did not raise the stress hormones ACTH or cortisol beyond the levels seen with GHRH, even at doses far above its effective dose. None of the compounds tested changed other pituitary hormones.
Human study, early-stage, healthy men at 5 dose levels (8 per level). Published and peer reviewed.
Its half-life was about 2 hours. Each infusion produced a single growth hormone pulse that peaked at about 40 minutes and then fell back to very low levels.
Human trial, phase 2, 114 patients analyzed. Published and peer reviewed.
The trial did not meet its main goal. Median time to tolerating a solid meal was 25.3 hours with ipamorelin and 32.6 hours with placebo, a difference that was not statistically significant. The authors found no significant differences in the other efficacy measures.
In the bowel-surgery trial, adverse events were reported in 87.5% of the ipamorelin group and 94.8% of the placebo group, and the drug was described as well tolerated. The FDA states that a published study of the intravenous route identified serious adverse events, including death.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. The FDA lists ipamorelin acetate among bulk substances that may present significant safety risks for outsourcing-facility compounding (Category 2, added in 2023). Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list (growth hormone secretagogues).
Also known as elamipretide, MTP-131, Bendavia; sold in the US as Forzinity
What it is
A four-amino-acid peptide that binds cardiolipin, a fat found in the inner membrane of mitochondria. It was co-discovered by Peter Schiller (IRCM, Montreal) and Hazel Szeto (Cornell) and developed by Stealth BioTherapeutics, which now operates as Mighty Therapeutics.
Human trial, phase 2/3, 12 participants. Published and peer reviewed.
In a double-blind crossover trial with two 12-week periods against placebo, neither primary endpoint was met: the 6-minute walk test and a Barth syndrome symptom score.
Human trial, open-label extension (no placebo group), 10 participants. Published and peer reviewed.
At 36 weeks, 6-minute walk distance had improved by 95.9 meters and fatigue scores by 2.1 points. Among the 8 participants followed to 168 weeks, the walk-test gain was 96.1 meters. Without a placebo group, these results are harder to interpret.
Human trial, phase 3, 218 participants. Published and peer reviewed.
Over 24 weeks against placebo, the trial did not meet its primary endpoints. The difference in 6-minute walk distance was −3.2 meters, and fatigue scores did not differ meaningfully.
Human trial, phase 2a. Published and peer reviewed.
In people treated for a major heart attack, it did not reduce heart muscle damage compared with placebo, and imaging and clinical outcomes did not improve. It was reported as well tolerated.
Animal study (dogs), 14 animals. Published and peer reviewed.
After 3 months, ejection fraction rose from 30% to 36% in treated dogs and fell from 31% to 29% in untreated dogs. Measures of mitochondrial energy production also improved.
Injection-site reactions were the most common: in the Barth syndrome trial, every participant on the drug had one (redness, pain, hardening, itching), compared with 67% on placebo. The FDA label also lists serious allergic reactions as a warning.
FDA-approved for one use only. On September 19, 2025, the FDA granted accelerated approval to Forzinity to improve muscle strength in people with Barth syndrome weighing at least 30 kg. Accelerated approval means continued approval depends on a confirmatory trial, which the company has agreed to run. It is not approved for any other condition; trials in dry age-related macular degeneration are ongoing.
Also written Ac-LKKTETQ, thymosin beta-4 fragment (17–23)
What it is
A synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide (Ac-LKKTETQ) matching the actin-binding region of thymosin beta-4, a natural 43-amino-acid protein. It was characterized by anti-doping chemists after being found in seized products, not developed by a drug company.
Full thymosin beta-4 has been tested in people: as an intravenous drug in a phase 1 safety study, as a skin gel for leg ulcers, and as eye drops for dry eye and a corneal condition. Those trials used the full protein, not TB-500, and several missed their main goals. We found no human trials of TB-500 itself.
Cell study (human blood-vessel cells, chick tissue). Published and peer reviewed.
The seven-amino-acid actin-binding segment drove blood-vessel cell migration and sprouting nearly as well as full thymosin beta-4. Peptides missing any part of the segment were inactive.
A synthetic peptide containing the actin-binding segment helped repair full-thickness skin wounds in 26-month-old mice, comparable to full thymosin beta-4.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee voted 8 to 6 (1 abstention) to recommend adding it to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with. On October 28, 2026, HHS announced an interim policy under which it does not intend to take enforcement action against licensed pharmacies and physicians compounding TB-500 for individual prescriptions under set conditions while rulemaking continues. HHS states this is not FDA approval. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
Lys-Pro-Val; alpha-MSH (11–13); sold as KPV or KPV acetate
What it is
A three-amino-acid peptide (lysine, proline, valine) matching the end of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). It is not part of any FDA-approved drug, and how it works in the body is not well understood.
Cell study and animal study (mice). Published and peer reviewed.
In human intestinal and immune cells, KPV entered through a gut transporter (PepT1) and reduced inflammatory signaling. Given in drinking water, it reduced chemically induced colitis in mice.
KPV-treated mice with colitis regained more weight and had less gut inflammation. In mice lacking a working melanocortin-1 receptor, it still protected against colitis, suggesting it works at least partly through another pathway.
Cell study and animal study (mice). Published and peer reviewed.
KPV packed into coated nanoparticles and given by mouth promoted healing of the gut lining and lowered an inflammatory marker in mice with colitis, more than uncoated particles.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee voted 8 to 6 (1 abstention) to recommend adding it to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with; FDA staff had recommended against. On October 28, 2026, HHS announced an interim policy under which it does not intend to take enforcement action against licensed pharmacies and physicians compounding KPV acetate for individual prescriptions, in topical and oral forms only, under set conditions while rulemaking continues. HHS states this is not FDA approval. KPV is not named on the 2026 World Anti-Doping Agency list.
A lab-made version of the first 29 amino acids of growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) with amino-acid changes, without the albumin-binding group (DAC) that makes CJC-1295 with DAC long-lasting. Its closest approved relative is sermorelin, the unmodified GHRH(1-29), which was sold in the US as Geref until 2008.
Not the same as CJC-1295 with DAC, and two names for two peptides
The human trials of "CJC-1295" used the DAC version, which lasts days; a review table lists this version at under 30 minutes. Sellers also use "Mod GRF 1-29" and "CJC-1295 without DAC" interchangeably, but anti-doping chemists describe them as two slightly different peptides (29 versus 30 amino acids).
No published human or animal efficacy studies found.
We found no peer-reviewed study of what this compound does in people or animals. The published research is almost entirely about detecting it in anti-doping tests.
Identified in a seized product
Lab analysis, no subjects. Published and peer reviewed.
Chemists analyzing a product seized in Norway and sold as "CJC-1295" found a 29-amino-acid peptide matching Modified GRF 1-29, not the DAC version.
We found no human safety data specific to this compound. The FDA's entry for "CJC-1295," which does not say which version, lists serious adverse events including increased heart rate and notes that clinical data are limited.
No FDA-approved product. Not in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list, which names CJC-1295 among GHRH analogues.
A two-peptide combination, sold together or as a blend
What it is
Two separate peptides, BPC-157 and TB-500, sold together. Blends vary by seller, so check the label for exactly what is in a given product.
Evidence for the combination
Achilles tendon repair in rats
Animal study (32 rats, 4 groups). Published and peer reviewed.
Rats with a repaired Achilles tendon received BPC-157, TB-500, both, or nothing. Only TB-500 alone significantly improved tendon strength. The authors found no additional benefit from combining the two.
Human study, chart review, 4 patients on the combination, no control group. Published.
In a clinic chart review, 4 patients received BPC-157 plus thymosin beta-4 (the paper does not say which form), and 3 of 4 reported less knee pain in a phone survey. With 4 patients and no comparison group, this cannot show the combination works.
Neither peptide is FDA-approved. Both are in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy, but that policy applies only to products with a single listed active ingredient, so it does not cover them combined. Both are prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
A three-peptide combination, sold together or as a blend
What it is
Three separate peptides, BPC-157, TB-500 and GHK-Cu, sold together. Blends vary by seller, so check the label for exactly what is in a given product.
Evidence for the combination
No studies of this combination found
No published studies or registered trials found.
We found no study of these three peptides together, in people or animals. A 2026 review of these peptides describes the effects of combining them as unexplored.
None of the three is FDA-approved as a drug (GHK-Cu is used as a cosmetic ingredient). HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy covers BPC-157 and TB-500 but not GHK-Cu, and applies only to single-ingredient products. BPC-157 and TB-500 are prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
A four-peptide combination, sold together or as a blend
What it is
Four separate peptides, BPC-157, TB-500, GHK-Cu and KPV, sold together. Blends vary by seller, so check the label for exactly what is in a given product.
Evidence for the combination
No studies of this combination found
No published studies or registered trials found.
We found no study of these four peptides together, in people or animals. The FDA's 2026 review of KPV notes that online sellers promote it in combinations, and it found no human data for KPV itself.
None of the four is FDA-approved as a drug. HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy covers BPC-157, TB-500 and KPV (KPV only in topical and oral forms) but not GHK-Cu, and applies only to single-ingredient products. BPC-157 and TB-500 are prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
A two-peptide combination, sold together or as a blend
What it is
Two separate peptides sold together: CJC-1295 without DAC (also sold as Mod GRF 1-29), which acts like growth-hormone-releasing hormone, and ipamorelin, which acts on the ghrelin receptor. Blends vary by seller, and some use the DAC version instead, so check the label.
Evidence for the combination
No studies of this combination found
No published human studies or registered trials found.
We found no study of CJC-1295 (either version) given together with ipamorelin in people.
Related older research, different compounds
Human study, placebo-controlled, 18 healthy men. Published and peer reviewed.
In 1990, natural GHRH given with a different growth hormone releaser (GHRP-6) released growth hormone together more than either alone. This study did not use CJC-1295 or ipamorelin, so it does not show what this combination does.
Neither is FDA-approved, and neither is in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy. Both are prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
Sold as Egrifta (Egrifta SV, Egrifta WR); development code TH9507
What it is
A synthetic analog of growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), developed by Theratechnologies of Montreal. It is an FDA-approved prescription drug for one condition.
Human trials, phase 3, two trials pooled, 806 participants. Published and peer reviewed.
At 26 weeks, visceral fat fell 24 cm² on tesamorelin versus a 2 cm² rise on placebo, triglycerides fell, and fat under the skin did not change significantly. In those who continued to 52 weeks, the visceral fat reduction held.
Human trial, randomized, double-blind, 61 participants, 12 months. Published and peer reviewed.
Liver fat fell 37% more than with placebo, and liver fat returned to normal levels (under 5%) in 35% of the tesamorelin group versus 4% on placebo. The authors say longer studies are needed.
From the FDA label's pooled 26-week data: injection-site reactions (17% versus 6% on placebo), joint pain, muscle pain, swelling of the legs, tingling, rash and raised blood sugar (HbA1c of 6.5% or higher in 5% versus 1%). About half of people developed antibodies to the drug.
FDA-approved since 2010 for one use: "the reduction of excess abdominal fat in HIV-infected adult patients with lipodystrophy." The label states it is not for weight loss and that long-term heart safety has not been established. The newest version, Egrifta WR, was approved in March 2025. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
Also known as enclomiphene citrate; development name Androxal
What it is
A small-molecule drug, not a peptide. It is one of the two forms (the trans isomer) that make up clomiphene, and it belongs to the selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) class. It was developed by Repros Therapeutics; development has since been discontinued.
Low testosterone in men, compared with testosterone gel
Human trials, phase 3, two 16-week trials. Published and peer reviewed.
In men with secondary hypogonadism, testosterone rose with both enclomiphene and testosterone gel. LH and FSH rose with enclomiphene and fell with the gel, and sperm concentration stayed in the normal range with enclomiphene while the gel markedly reduced it.
The FDA issued a Complete Response Letter, saying the phase 3 trial design was no longer adequate to show clinical benefit and recommending further phase 3 studies. The FDA also raised concerns about the lab testing methods.
A conference report of the phase 3 trials listed weight gain, joint pain, headache, high blood pressure and upper respiratory infection, each in fewer than 5% of the enclomiphene group and none significantly different from the testosterone gel. This report was not peer reviewed.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. On the FDA's list of substances nominated for pharmacy compounding, enclomiphene citrate is in Category 1 (still under evaluation). Prohibited in sport at all times as a component of clomiphene, which the World Anti-Doping Agency lists among anti-estrogenic substances.
A synthetic, ring-shaped seven-amino-acid peptide made to mimic alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), the hormone that drives skin tanning. It was developed at the University of Arizona and first tested in people as a tanning agent in the 1990s.
Two related compounds are FDA-approved: bremelanotide (Vyleesi, 2019) for low sexual desire in premenopausal women, and afamelanotide (Scenesse, 2019) for a rare light-sensitivity disorder. They are different compounds from Melanotan II, and their approvals do not cover it.
Case reports and review. Published and peer reviewed.
Case reports describe new and changing moles in people using unregulated Melanotan products, and four describe melanomas arising during or soon after use. A 2017 review says a causal link to melanoma has not been proven.
Reported cases include muscle breakdown with kidney injury (rhabdomyolysis) needing intensive care, and a prolonged painful erection (priapism) that needed surgery.
In trials: nausea (sometimes severe), yawning and stretching, drowsiness and spontaneous erections. In case reports: mole changes, rhabdomyolysis, priapism and kidney injury. The FDA also lists brain swelling (PRES) and a stimulant-like toxic reaction among its concerns.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. In 2007, the FDA told consumers to stop using unapproved Melanotan II products. Its compounding nomination was withdrawn in April 2026, which does not make it eligible for compounding, and it is not in HHS's October 2026 interim policy. It is not named on the 2026 World Anti-Doping Agency list, but the list bans, at all times, substances with no current approval for human use.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; reduced form NADH
What it is
A coenzyme found in every cell, central to how cells make energy. It is not a peptide. Interest in it comes largely from animal research linking falling NAD+ levels to aging.
NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide) and NR (nicotinamide riboside) are different compounds that the body converts into NAD+. They are usually taken by mouth and are sold as supplements. Two of the findings below tested NMN or NR, not NAD+ itself.
What it has been studied for
NAD+ given by IV in healthy men
Human study, small controlled pilot, 11 men (8 NAD+, 3 saline). Published and peer reviewed.
During a 6-hour infusion, blood NAD+ did not change significantly for the first 2 hours, then was up 398% at 6 hours. Its breakdown products rose by a similar amount. The authors note the very small control group.
Human trial, randomized, placebo-controlled, 25 women with prediabetes, 10 weeks. Published and peer reviewed.
Oral NMN improved how well muscle took up sugar in response to insulin. It did not change blood sugar, blood pressure, blood fats, liver fat or inflammation markers.
A 2025 review found that an age-related fall in NAD+ has been consistently observed in only a limited number of human studies, and that trials of NAD+ precursors in people have shown limited benefit so far.
The IV pilot reported no adverse events in 8 men. Oral NR and NMN were well tolerated in the trials above. There are no larger controlled safety studies of NAD+ given by IV.
No FDA-approved NAD+ drug. On the FDA's list of substances nominated for pharmacy compounding, NAD and NADH are in Category 1 (still under evaluation). NMN can be sold as a dietary supplement: the FDA reversed its earlier position in September 2025. For athletes, the World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits IV infusions of more than 100 mL per 12 hours outside hospital care, whatever the substance.
Mitochondrial open reading frame of the 12S rRNA-c
What it is
A 16-amino-acid peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA and found naturally in human blood. It was discovered in 2015 by Pinchas Cohen's laboratory in California.
Diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance in mice
Animal study (mice) with cell work. Published and peer reviewed.
In mice on a high-fat diet, MOTS-c prevented obesity without changing food intake, and it improved insulin sensitivity by about 30%. It had no effect on weight in mice on a normal diet.
Human study (10 men, natural levels only) and animal study (mice). Published and peer reviewed.
In men, natural MOTS-c levels in muscle rose about 12-fold after exercise; no MOTS-c was given. In older mice, 2 weeks of MOTS-c roughly doubled treadmill running. A small lifespan gain in mice was not statistically significant. Two authors had financial ties to a company developing a related compound.
Human trial, phase 1b, 20 adults with obesity and fatty liver, 4 weeks. Company announcement; not peer reviewed.
CB4211 is a modified version of MOTS-c, not MOTS-c itself. Liver enzymes and blood sugar fell more than on placebo, but liver fat fell about equally in both groups. The company later said the formulation was not suitable for further development, and it dissolved in 2023.
No human safety data have been published for MOTS-c itself. The FDA says it has not identified any human exposure data and notes a possible risk of immune reactions.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee voted 7 to 5 (2 abstentions) to recommend adding it to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with. On October 28, 2026, HHS announced an interim policy under which it does not intend to take enforcement action against licensed pharmacies and physicians compounding MOTS-c for individual prescriptions under set conditions while rulemaking continues. HHS states this is not FDA approval. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list (metabolic modulators).
A synthetic ACTH(4-10) analog; Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro
What it is
A synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide based on a fragment of the hormone ACTH, without that hormone's effects on the adrenal glands. It was developed in Moscow by the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences with Moscow State University, and it is a registered medicine in Russia.
N-acetyl Semax and "NA-Semax-Amidate" are chemically modified versions. N-acetyl Semax has been tested in rats; we found no published human research or approval for either modified version. The findings below are for Semax itself.
Human study, 30 patients on Semax versus 80 on standard care, not described as randomized. Published and peer reviewed (Russian journal).
Patients given Semax on top of standard care recovered neurological function, especially movement, faster than those on standard care alone. The study came from a group working with the developers.
Meta-analysis of small Russian studies, 3 studies pooled (181 patients).
Compared with placebo, Semax was linked to better stroke-severity and mobility scores in the weeks after a moderate or severe stroke. The authors themselves call for a larger, standard double-blind trial.
After an induced stroke, Semax raised gene activity for several nerve growth factors (including BDNF and NGF) in the damaged brain area compared with saline.
Every Semax study we could confirm comes from the developers' institutes or groups working with them. We found no independent or Western replication.
Side effects reported
The Russian product label lists only mild irritation of the nasal lining with prolonged use. Published trial reports we could access did not give adverse-event rates.
A registered prescription medicine in Russia, for the acute period of ischemic stroke as part of combined therapy. Not approved by the FDA. In July 2026, the FDA's compounding advisory committee recommended adding it to the list of substances pharmacies may compound with. On October 28, 2026, HHS announced an interim policy under which it does not intend to take enforcement action against licensed pharmacies and physicians compounding Semax for individual prescriptions, for nasal use only, under set conditions while rulemaking continues. HHS states this is not FDA approval. The US Department of Defense lists Semax as prohibited for athletes under WADA section S2.
Also known as ibutamoren mesylate, MK-0677, LUM-201
What it is
A small-molecule drug, not a peptide, that mimics the hormone ghrelin to trigger growth hormone release and can be taken by mouth. It was originally developed by Merck and later studied in children as LUM-201 by Lumos Pharma.
Human trial, randomized, placebo-controlled, 65 adults aged 60 to 81, 2 years. Published and peer reviewed.
At 1 year, fat-free mass rose 1.1 kg versus a 0.5 kg loss on placebo. Fat did not change, strength and physical function did not improve, and fasting blood sugar rose while insulin sensitivity fell.
Human trial, phase 2b, 123 participants. Published and peer reviewed. Stopped early.
Walking speed improved, but most other function measures did not. The trial was stopped early because of a safety signal of congestive heart failure in a small number of patients, and the authors called the safety profile unfavorable in this group.
In older adults: increased appetite (easing within months), mild leg swelling, muscle pain, higher blood sugar and lower insulin sensitivity. In the hip-fracture trial: a congestive heart failure signal that ended the trial.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. The FDA lists ibutamoren mesylate among substances that may present significant safety risks in compounding (Category 2), citing the potential for congestive heart failure, and has named it in warning letters to sellers of unapproved products. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list.
Human trial, randomized, placebo-controlled, 54 adults, 6 months. Published and peer reviewed.
In the higher-dose group, glutathione in the blood rose about 30 to 35% and in cheek cells about 260%. Levels returned to baseline within a month of stopping.
Human trial, placebo-controlled, 50 women enrolled, 32 analyzed. Published and peer reviewed.
Lightening was seen in 37.5% on glutathione versus 18.7% on placebo, a difference that was not statistically significant, and it faded after treatment. In the glutathione group, 8 women were withdrawn for abnormal liver tests and 1 for a severe allergic reaction.
In the IV skin-lightening trial, abnormal liver tests and one severe allergic reaction led to withdrawals. The FDA has also reported patients with fever, chills and sepsis-like symptoms after IV glutathione compounded from supplement-grade powder, most recently in August 2026 (at least 30 patients). In the Parkinson's and cystic fibrosis trials, side effects were similar to placebo.
No FDA-approved glutathione drug. Sold in the US as a dietary supplement. On the FDA's list of substances nominated for pharmacy compounding, it is in Category 1 (still under evaluation), and the FDA has warned compounders not to use supplement-grade glutathione for sterile products. For athletes, the World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits IV infusions of more than 100 mL per 12 hours outside hospital care, whatever the substance.
Also written AOD-9604, AOD9604; a modified fragment of growth hormone (177–191)
What it is
A synthetic 16-amino-acid peptide based on the tail end of human growth hormone (residues 177 to 191) with one added amino acid. It was developed by Metabolic Pharmaceuticals in Australia as an anti-obesity drug, and that development was ended.
Human trial, phase 2b, 502 participants, 24 weeks. Results reported by the company and reviewed by the FDA; not published in a journal.
Weight loss was not significantly different from placebo. The company then ended development for obesity, and the FDA concluded there is no evidence it is effective for obesity.
Animal studies (rats, monkeys), as reviewed by the FDA.
The FDA flagged bone-marker changes in rats, liver-cell changes in monkeys and unclear results on genetic toxicity, and found no human toxicity data for repeated use under the skin.
Headache was most common, followed by tiredness, low blood sugar, dizziness and cold symptoms, at rates similar to placebo. The FDA notes serious adverse events that may be associated with it, though causality is not clear.
Not approved by the FDA for any use. Its "GRAS" (generally recognized as safe) status for food use, announced in 2012, was self-affirmed by a panel the company hired, not an FDA determination. It is not in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy. Prohibited in sport at all times under the World Anti-Doping Agency list (growth hormone fragments).
Also known as TP-7; a tuftsin analog, Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro
What it is
A synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide based on tuftsin, a natural immune-system peptide. It was developed in Moscow by the Institute of Molecular Genetics with the Zakusov Institute of Pharmacology, and it is registered in Russia as an anti-anxiety medicine.
Human study, 62 patients, no placebo group; blinding not described. Published and peer reviewed (Russian journal).
In patients with generalized anxiety disorder or neurasthenia, Selank and the benzodiazepine medazepam reduced anxiety to a similar degree. Selank also reduced fatigue.
Human study, open-label, 70 adults. Published and peer reviewed (Russian journal); a developer is a co-author.
At day 21, patients who continued Selank alongside the benzodiazepine phenazepam had depression-scale scores about 40% lower and a 75% response rate, versus 30% on phenazepam alone. At day 14, the difference was not significant.
Of 84 genes measured in the rat brain, 45 changed 1 hour after Selank, in a pattern resembling the calming neurotransmitter GABA. A follow-up in human nerve cells grown in the lab found no gene changes from Selank alone.
Registered in Russia and sold there without a prescription. Not approved by the FDA, not on the FDA's list of substances nominated for pharmacy compounding, and not in HHS's October 2026 interim compounding policy. It is not named on the 2026 World Anti-Doping Agency list.